Different groups offered different solutions to this problem. [12], Problematically, the built-in Austrian dominance failed to take into account Prussia's 18th-century emergence in Imperial politics. the German Reich having 25 member states and led by the Kingdom of Prussia of the Hohenzollerns on 18 January 1871; the event was later celebrated as the customary date of the German Empire's foundation, although the legally meaningful events relevant to the accomplishment of unification occurred on 1 January 1871 (accession of South German states and constitutional adoption of the name German Empire) and 4 May 1871 (entry into force of the permanent Constitution of the German Empire). March 2, 2023 2:09 AM PT. Correct answers: 1 question: Which statement about an important event that led to german unification is true? AP Euro: German Unification 45,625 views Jan 31, 2015 546 Dislike Share Paul Sargent 28.5K subscribers An overview of the process of German unification, with an emphasis on the role of Otto. [121] According to this story, Prussia played the dominant role in bringing the German states together as a nation-state; only Prussia could protect German liberties from being crushed by French or Russian influence. web dbq the unification of germany and italy answer all questions on looseleaf will be graded as a test . The next day, the Prussian delegate to the Frankfurt assembly presented a plan calling for a national constitution, a directly elected national Diet, and universal suffrage. Brunswick joined the Zollverein Customs Union in 1842, while Hanover and Oldenburg finally joined in 1854[32] After the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenburg were annexed by Prussia and thus annexed also to the Customs Union, while the two Mecklenburg states and the city states of Hamburg and Bremen joined late because they were reliant on international trade. In particular, it involved a struggle over language, education, and religion. Although the Prussian army had been dramatically defeated in the 1806 Battle of Jena-Auerstedt, it had made a spectacular comeback at Waterloo. Russian Jews arrived in north German cities in the thousands; considerably less educated and less affluent, their often dismal poverty dismayed many of the Germanized Jews. [99] Nevertheless, in January, the Germans fired some 12,000 shells, 300400 grenades daily into the city. However, the Prussian leadership, which was thoroughly conservative, rejected the Frankfurt constitution, preferring reform and unification directed from above. By establishing a Germany without Austria, the political and administrative unification in 1871 at least temporarily solved the problem of dualism. Guy, Monika Chavez, Thomas A. Lovik [85], The Peace of Prague offered lenient terms to Austria but its relationship with the new nation-state of Italy underwent major restructuring. The Peace of Prague sealed the dissolution of the German Confederation. [50], More recent scholarship has rejected this idea, claiming that Germany did not have an actual "distinctive path" any more than any other nation, a historiographic idea known as exceptionalism. The Congress established a loose German Confederation (18151866), headed by Austria, with a "Federal Diet" (called the Bundestag or Bundesversammlung, an assembly of appointed leaders) that met in the city of Frankfurt am Main. The Zollverein freed trade between most of the German states, with the exception of Austria. They also understood that Prussia's only ally abroad was Italy. The victory over France in 1871 expanded Prussian hegemony in the German states (aside from Austria) to the international level. Moreover, it is a useful case study for the broader concept of "nationalism" as a historical agent. Finally, as Prussian military capacity far exceeded that of Austria, Prussia was clearly the only state within the Confederation (or among the German states generally) capable of protecting all of them from potential interference or aggression. The overall content of the speeches suggested a fundamental difference between the German nationalism of the 1830s and the French nationalism of the July Revolution: the focus of German nationalism lay in the education of the people; once the populace was educated as to what was needed, they would accomplish it. The Wars of Unification resulted in the annexation of large populations of non-German speakers, such as Danes in Schleswig and French in Alsace-Lorraine. 9 months ago. One of the major questions concerning German unification centered on this Prussian-Austrian rivalry, which was both diplomatic and cultural. France's sphere included the Iberian Peninsula and a share of influence in the Italian states. The wave of nationalism that raced through Europe in the nineteenth century resulted in the unifications of Germany and Italy. At first Bismarck outlawed the SPD, but dissatisfaction with unification in Germany's cities, where workers sometimes viewed the German state as a tool of capitalism, proved that socialism was to become a significant force in post-unification German politics. [22], Crucially, both the Wartburg rally in 1817 and the Hambach Festival in 1832 had lacked any clear-cut program of unification. Lacking a geographically central organizing feature (such as a national capital), the rails were laid in webs, linking towns and markets within regions, regions within larger regions, and so on. How were they to be organized? 0. Such leadership, of course, is required not to dominate other peoples but to lead them along the path of duty, to lead them toward the brotherhood of nations where all the barriers erected by egoism will be destroyed." They brought Austria and Hungary together into one empire. [118], By the years of unification, German Jews played an important role in the intellectual underpinnings of the German professional, intellectual, and social life. By 1914, the SPD's 3 million members made it the largest party in Germany. [100] On January 18, 1871, the German princes and senior military commanders proclaimed Wilhelm "German Emperor" in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles. German Unification Before 1870 Economic success, political failure, and diplomatic tension marked the idea of a unified Germany in the period after the Napoleonic Wars. [22] Promoted as a county fair,[23] its participants celebrated fraternity, liberty, and national unity. The negotiators at Vienna took no account of Prussia's growing strength within and declined to create a second coalition of the German states under Prussia's influence, and so failed to foresee that Prussia would rise to challenge Austria for leadership of the German peoples. During the Revolution of 1848, liberals met in the Frankfurt Assembly and drafted a constitution modeled on the ideals of the French Revolution of 1789. Eric Ryan Distinguished Scholar at Southern Methodist University studying Finance, Business Journalism, and Data Science Constructing Class and Nationality in Alsace, 1830-1945. [15], The period of Austrian and Prussian police-states and vast censorship between the Congress of Vienna and the Revolutions of 1848 in Germany later became widely known as the Vormrz, the "before March", referring to March 1848. Rural farmer. When Italy and Germany were unified, they changed history. The states ranged in size from the small and complex territories of the princely Hohenlohe family branches to sizable, well-defined territories such as the Electorate of Bavaria, the Margraviate of Brandenburg or the Kingdom of Bohemia. Recent research into the role of the Grand Bourgeoisiewhich included bankers, merchants, industrialists, and entrepreneursin the construction of the new state has largely refuted the claim of political and economic dominance of the Junkers as a social group. There was also uncertainty as to who would best lead and defend "Germany", however it was defined. [101] Under the subsequent Treaty of Frankfurt, France relinquished most of its traditionally German regions (Alsace and the German-speaking part of Lorraine); paid an indemnity, calculated (on the basis of population) as the precise equivalent of the indemnity that Napoleon Bonaparte imposed on Prussia in 1807;[102] and accepted German administration of Paris and most of northern France, with "German troops to be withdrawn stage by stage with each installment of the indemnity payment". The Second Schleswig War resulted in victory for the combined armies of Prussia and Austria, and the two countries won control of Schleswig and Holstein in the concluding peace of Vienna, signed on 30 October 1864. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2001. The prince withdrew as a candidate, thus defusing the crisis, but the French ambassador to Berlin would not let the issue lie. [91] Over the next few weeks, the Spanish offer turned into the talk of Europe. Many of the problems related to poverty (such as illness, overcrowded housing, unemployment, school absenteeism, refusal to learn German, etc.) With its wording shortened and sharpened by Bismarckand further alterations made in the course of its translation by the French agency Havasthe Ems Dispatch raised an angry furor in France. This became known as the Punctation of Olmtz, but among Prussians it was known as the "Humiliation of Olmtz."[56]. Save Paper; Otto Von Bismarck - His Policies Of German Unification. [107], Though often characterized as a federation of monarchs, the German Empire, strictly speaking, federated a group of 26 constituent entities with different forms of government, ranging from the main four constitutional monarchies to the three republican Hanseatic cities. In the first half of the 1860s, Austria and Prussia both contended to speak for the German states; both maintained they could support German interests abroad and protect German interests at home. The Habsburgs ceded Venetia to France, which then formally transferred control to Italy. [47], Scholars of German history have engaged in decades of debate over how the successes and failures of the Frankfurt Parliament contribute to the historiographical explanations of German nation building. Hitler often called on the German public to sacrifice all for the cause of their great nation, but his regime did not create German nationalism: it merely capitalized on an intrinsic cultural value of German society that still remains prevalent even to this day. The German Conquest of France in 18701871. By 1846, 180 steamers plied German rivers and Lake Constance, and a network of canals extended from the Danube, the Weser, and the Elbe rivers. As Giuseppe Garibaldi wrote to German revolutionary Karl Blind on 10 April 1865, "The progress of humanity seems to have come to a halt, and you with your superior intelligence will know why. [116] The May Laws of 1873 brought the appointment of priests, and their education, under the control of the state, resulting in the closure of many seminaries, and a shortage of priests. My three part lecture on German Unification covers the complete unification process, starting with the failure of liberal nationalism after the Revolutions of 1848 and then focusing on Otto von Bismarck's domestic and foreign policies that put Prussia at the helm of a unified German state through the shrewd application of realpolitik . The states south of the Main River (Baden, Wrttemberg, and Bavaria) signed separate treaties requiring them to pay indemnities and to form alliances bringing them into Prussia's sphere of influence. Austria's Duel Monarchy- In 1867 the Germans tried a new method of unitifiction. [11], Generally, an enlarged Prussia and the 38 other states consolidated from the mediatized territories of 1803 were confederated within the Austrian Empire's sphere of influence. In responding to the Schleswig-Holstein Question, they both proved equally diligent in doing so. Nor was it by any means inevitable that the more than 100 independent German principalities, kingdoms, free cities, and archbishoprics would coalesce under Prussian leadership into a unified, modern, national political entity. This hope would prove futile since the 1866 treaty came into effect and united all German states militarilyif not happilyto fight against France. Bismarck used the nationalist movement to increase Prussia's power and began working to eliminate foreign influence, much like the process of unification in Italy. German and Italian unification was the fruit of the nationalism in 19th century. The German Empire became," in Karl Marx's words, a military despotism cloaked in parliamentary forms with a feudal ingredient, influenced by the bourgeoisie, festooned with bureaucrats and guarded by police. Indeed, many historians would see Germany's escape into war in 1914 as a flight from all of the internal-political contradictions forged by Bismarck at Versailles in the fall of 1870. Consequently, a German nation united under one banner presented significant questions. [59], Other nationalists had high hopes for the German unification movement, and the frustration with lasting German unification after 1850 seemed to set the national movement back. [78], Although several German states initially sided with Austria, they stayed on the defensive and failed to take effective initiatives against Prussian troops. For a writing assignment, ask students to write a review of the piece, including comments on its political connotations for a newspaper affiliated with one of the major German political groups (see section IV). In the refrain, "Dear fatherland, dear fatherland, put your mind to rest / The watch stands true on the Rhine", and in such other patriotic poetry as Nicholaus Becker's "Das Rheinlied" ("The Rhine"), Germans were called upon to defend their territorial homeland. The Age of Metternich is a turning point which sparks governmental . [61], King Frederick William IV suffered a stroke in 1857 and could no longer rule. The revolutionaries pressured various state governments, particularly those in the Rhineland, for a parliamentary assembly that would have the responsibility to draft a constitution. Plus, it's packed with the women's World Cup There is, in political geography, no Germany proper to speak of. Yet there is a natural undercurrent tending to a national feeling and toward a union of the Germans into one great nation, ruled by one common head as a national unit. Schneckenburger wrote "The Watch on the Rhine" in a specific patriotic response to French assertions that the Rhine was France's "natural" eastern boundary. Although they initially sought to restore central Imperial power, preserving a weak and fragmented Empire was convenient for France and Sweden, and therefore, their ensuing intervention led to the Peace of Westphalia which effectively thwarted for centuries any serious attempts to reinforce the imperial central authority and petrified fragmentation, resulting in the German-speaking territories comprising on the eve of the Napoleonic Wars still more than 300 political entities, most of them being parts of the Holy Roman Empire, though portions of the extensive Habsburg Monarchy (exclusively its large non-German-speaking territories: Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen and the Austrian partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) or of the Hohenzollern Kingdom of Prussia (both the German-speaking former Duchy of Prussia and the non-German-speaking entire territory of the Prussian partition of Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth) as well as the German-speaking Swiss cantons were outside of the Imperial borders. As a result, Germany after unification was forced to modify and adapt its political situation to accommodate dissenting political opinions and national and religious minorities. 47 and Conclusion. Second, through diplomatic maneuvering, a skilful leader could create an environment in which a rival state would declare war first, thus forcing states allied with the "victim" of external aggression to come to the leader's aid. At Hambach, the positions of the many speakers illustrated their disparate agendas. Europe (1848-1871) quizzes about important details and events in every section of the book. Supporters of Grossdeutsch, or Greater Germany, insisted that Prussians and Austrians with a common language naturally should be part of one nation. Since 1780, after emancipation by the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II, Jews in the former Habsburg territories had enjoyed considerable economic and legal privileges that their counterparts in other German-speaking territories did not: they could own land, for example, and they did not have to live in a Jewish quarter (also called the Judengasse, or "Jews' alley"). Italy had its own way of unifying and so did Germany. Ukrainian forces repelled numerous Russian attacks in Bakhmut over the past 24 hours, Kyiv said on March 4, despite claims by Moscow's mercenaries that the eastern city that has been the focal . However, by the 19th century, transportation and communications improvements started to bring these regions closer together. Austria's power meant lack of power for us, whereas Prussia desired German unity in order to supply the deficiencies of her own power. Unifying various states into one nation required more than some military victories, however much these might have boosted morale. Historians debate whether Otto von BismarckMinister President of Prussiahad a master plan to expand the North German Confederation of 1866 to include the remaining independent German states into a single entity or simply to expand the power of the Kingdom of Prussia. The Prussian army invested Paris and held it under siege until mid-January, with the city being "ineffectually bombarded". A confederated realm of German princedoms, along with some adjacent lands, had been in existence for over a thousand years; dating to the Treaty of Verdun i.e. This essay, and the others in this collection, focuses on Saxony, demonstrating how multiple groups of non-German ethnicities interacted in the era of unification. He fled his U.S. Army post in the 1950s in danger of reprisals for his left-wing activities at Harvard and in Buffalo, New York. [27], The economic, social and cultural dislocation of ordinary people, the economic hardship of an economy in transition, and the pressures of meteorological disasters all contributed to growing problems in Central Europe. German and Italian reunification has similarities and differences. In James Retallack, ed., Saxony in German History: Culture, Society, and Politics, 1830-1933. Italian and German Unification Secondary Sources SOURCE 1: Excerpt from Raymond Grew, A Sterner Plan for Italian Unity, 1963, pp. Kuhne, Thomas. [96], The humiliating capture of the French emperor and the loss of the French army itself, which marched into captivity at a makeshift camp in the Saarland ("Camp Misery"), threw the French government into turmoil; Napoleon's energetic opponents overthrew his government and proclaimed the Third Republic. [94], Napoleon III had tried to secure territorial concessions from both sides before and after the Austro-Prussian War, but despite his role as mediator during the peace negotiations, he ended up with nothing. You Germans, with your grave and philosophic character, might well be the ones who could win the confidence of others and guarantee the future stability of the international community. Prussia won and directly annexed some of the German states that had sided . The post Cold War reunification of Germany in 1990 seemed such a natural consequence of the end of the Cold War and the collapse of Soviet power in Eastern Europe that it is easy to forget that Germany had a fairly brief life span as a unified nation-state. [39], As travel became easier, faster, and less expensive, Germans started to see unity in factors other than their language. 22 times. [29], Formation of the Zollverein, an institution key to unifying the German states economically, helped to create a larger sense of economic unification. Applegate, Celia. With the proclamation of Wilhelm as Kaiser, Prussia assumed the leadership of the new empire. Richard Wagner (181383) is one of the most controversial composers of the nineteenth century. The theater is in complete darkness as a long, sustained E-flat is played. Students will analyze the creation of the German Empire as constructed "from above" by Prussian leadership through political institutions, economic interest, diplomacy, and war and the consequences of this for political, religious, and nationalistic opponents of German unification. Ten Minute History - German Unification and Empire (Short Documentary) History Matters 3.3M views 5 years ago The Roads to World War I: Crash Course European History #32 CrashCourse 870K. While Bismarck provided some liberal concessions, such as universal male suffrage, the constitution of the Empire ensured Prussian and aristocratic dominance in the legislature. . Learning Opportunities for AP Coordinators, The Structures of Nineteenth-Century Government, Students will be able to explain the sources of German nationalismincluding cultural, intellectual, religious, political, and socialand to describe the tensions between nationalism as cultural or linguistic "sameness," e.g., "German," and nationalism as defined by loyalty to a national political institution, e.g., "Germany.". ", Kocka, Jrgen and Mitchell, Allan. High-performance computing with distributed processing units to build a platform based cloud solution for quantum chemistry calculations and upper layer use-case applications. Students will examine the co-option of traditional political factions such as liberals and conservatives by German unifiers and the emergence of new political groups as various national minority parties, including the Catholic Center Party and the Social Democrats, as a result of unification. They would have been Genoese or Sicilian or Veronese. By 1870 three of the important lessons of the Austro-Prussian war had become apparent. Concurrent with this idea, movements to preserve old fortresses and historic sites emerged, and these particularly focused on the Rhineland, the site of so many confrontations with France and Spain.[43]. In 1813, Napoleon mounted a campaign in the German states to bring them back into the French orbit; the subsequent War of Liberation culminated in the great Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of Nations. Howard, Chapter XI: the Peace, pp. The possibility of German (or Italian) unification would overturn the overlapping spheres of influence system created in 1815 at the Congress of Vienna. Consequently, Prussian leaders expected to play a pivotal role in German politics. "German History before Hitler: The Debate about the German Sonderweg. As a result, the Confederation of the Rhine collapsed and the French period came to an end. On 18 November 1863, he signed the Danish November Constitution which replaced The Law of Sjlland and The Law of Jutland, which meant the new constitution applied to the Duchy of Schleswig. The Austrian army therefore faced the technologically superior Prussian army with support only from Saxony. No German state is permitted to distinguish between its citizens and other Germans. The economic strength of Prussia was one of the most important reasons behind the unification of Germany. In the Kleindeutschland ("Lesser Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the Prussian Hohenzollerns; in the Grossdeutschland ("Greater Germany") solution, the German states would be united under the leadership of the Austrian Habsburgs. [89] The Austro-Prussian War also damaged relations with the French government. Meanwhile, Helmuth von Moltke had become chief of the Prussian General Staff in 1857, and Albrecht von Roon would become Prussian Minister of War in 1859. [87] In 1867, the Austrian emperor Franz Joseph accepted a settlement (the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867) in which he gave his Hungarian holdings equal status with his Austrian domains, creating the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary.[88]. [117], The Germanized Jews remained another vulnerable population in the new German nation-state. During the ill-fated Revolutions of 1848, nationalists in Germany and Italy tried unsuccessfully to unify their nations on the basis of shared language and culture. [119], Another important element in nation-building, the story of the heroic past, fell to such nationalist German historians as the liberal constitutionalist Friedrich Dahlmann (17851860), his conservative student Heinrich von Treitschke (18341896), and others less conservative, such as Theodor Mommsen (18171903) and Heinrich von Sybel (18171895), to name two. Thus, by 1836, all states to the south of Prussia had joined the Customs Union, except Austria. A broad investigation into the problem of creating a German national identity outside of Prussia. The principal architects of this convention, Metternich, Castlereagh, and Tsar Alexander (with his foreign secretary Count Karl Nesselrode), had conceived of and organized a Europe balanced and guaranteed by four "great powers": Great Britain, France, Russia, and Austria, with each power having a geographic sphere of influence. Convinced that opera and music developed a spirit of nationalism, Wagner rejected the traditional design of theaters in which the nobility and wealthy sat in the loge boxes facing each other rather than the stage. Cocks, Geoffrey and Konrad Hugo Jarausch. He rejected liberal politics and constitutionalism in favor of unification "from above" through military force and diplomatic scheming. Smith focuses on German unification and religion. There are no class differences before the law. We need a nation courageous enough to give us a lead in this direction. He also held a fundamental distaste for the idea of accepting a crown from a popularly elected parliament: he would not accept a crown of "clay". 316395. A liberal professor, historian, and theologian, and generally a titan among late 19th-century scholars, Mommsen served as a delegate to the Prussian House of Representatives from 1863 to 1866 and 1873 to 1879; he also served as a delegate to the Reichstag from 1881 to 1884, for the liberal German Progress Party (Deutsche Fortschrittspartei) and later for the National Liberal Party. [14] As Maria Theresa and Joseph tried to restore Habsburg hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire, Frederick countered with the creation of the Frstenbund (Union of Princes) in 1785. The operas are based on an ancient German myth, and Wagner hoped that the retelling of this myth in modern operatic form would foster a spirit of German nationalism. [36] Historians of the German Empire later regarded the railways as the first indicator of a unified state; the patriotic novelist, Wilhelm Raabe, wrote: "The German empire was founded with the construction of the first railway"[37] Not everyone greeted the iron monster with enthusiasm. This became known as the practice of Kleinstaaterei, or "small-statery". As the rail network expanded, it became cheaper to transport goods: in 1840, 18 Pfennigs per ton per kilometer and in 1870, five Pfennigs. The widespreadmainly Germanrevolutions of 184849 sought unification of Germany under a single constitution. The decrees were the subject of Johann Joseph von Grres's pamphlet Teutschland [archaic: Deutschland] und die Revolution (Germany and the Revolution) (1820), in which he concluded that it was both impossible and undesirable to repress the free utterance of public opinion by reactionary measures. Within three years, 141 kilometers (88mi) of track had been laid, by 1840, 462 kilometers (287mi), and by 1860, 11,157 kilometers (6,933mi). Several states were promoted to kingdoms such as the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Kingdom of Saxony or the Kingdom of Hanover. The Austrian government ordered partial mobilization in the southern regions; the Italians responded by ordering full mobilization. The assembly offered to share power under a constitutional monarchy and offered the crown of a unified Germany to Frederick William IV of Prussia. G.Wawro. The Burschenschaft student organizations and popular demonstrations, such as those held at Wartburg Castle in October 1817, contributed to a growing sense of unity among German speakers of Central Europe. [5] The experience of German-speaking Central Europe during the years of French hegemony contributed to a sense of common cause to remove the French invaders and reassert control over their own lands. A Nation of Provincials: The German Idea of Heimat. Bismarck was also confronted with problems from religious minorities in Germany, especially from Catholics and Jews. [60]. You'll learn about Guisseppe Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuelle, Otto von . Economic success, political failure, and diplomatic tension marked the idea of a unified Germany in the period after the Napoleonic Wars. [58], This sphere of influence system depended upon the fragmentation of the German and Italian states, not their consolidation. Nor did it develop particularly early, being rather a largely mid-to-late-19th-century phenomenon. [113], A key element of the nation-state is the creation of a national culture, frequentlyalthough not necessarilythrough deliberate national policy. Gramont wrote a sharply formulated ultimatum to Wilhelm, as head of the Hohenzollern family, stating that if any Hohenzollern prince should accept the crown of Spain, the French government would respondalthough he left ambiguous the nature of such response. On 15 November 1863, Christian IX became king of Denmark and duke of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauenburg, which the Danish king held in personal union. In a speech to the Prussian parliament, Bismarck declared that Germany's interests in Poland necessitated such harsh measures. Many of their ideas and programs were later incorporated into Bismarck's social programs (e.g., social insurance, education programs, and wider definitions of suffrage). Bismarck's response to the Lower House was his famous "iron and blood" speech. In October 1813, more than 500,000 combatants engaged in ferocious fighting over three days, making it the largest European land battle of the 19th century.

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